Popoli and Poupoul: Two Sides of the Same Coin.
Text: Yves Xavier Ndounda Ndongo
Artistic direction: Francine Abada
Published on April 25, 2025
Keywords: Political caricature, Graphic satire, Satimedia, Cameroonian artistic heritage, Visual memory, Nyemb Popoli, Le Popoli, Poupoul, Symbolic resistance.
The Popoli collection by Artopia, which gathers a large portion of the issues of the satirical newspaper Le Popoli published in 1998, constitutes an essential archive for analyzing the graphic forms of protest in Cameroon. This article offers an iconographic, sociological, and political study of the figure of Poupoul, considered as the embodiment of the postcolonial despot and as a critical operator within the Cameroonian socio-political field. Through the study of the character Poupoul and the media platform Le Popoli, the goal is to show that they represent two sides of the same coin: one functioning on the level of individual satire, the other in structuring a critical public space. This reflection will also allow an analysis of how caricature contributes to the construction of a critical graphic memory, thereby justifying its patrimonialization and inclusion in contemporary educational, cultural, and digital strategies.
The Messager Popoli No. 243, Tuesday, January 6, 1998, p. 3 Artopia Collection
Introduction
The Popoli collection, now preserved within Artopia, constitutes a key documentary archive for the study of Cameroonian political caricature at the turn of the 20th century. Gathering nearly all issues of the satirical newspaper Le Popoli published between January and December 1998, this unique collection of 80 issues offers a valuable opportunity to explore the aesthetic, cultural, and sociopolitical dynamics shaping the graphic expression of dissent in a context where freedom of expression was still seeking its footing.
More than a mere archive, this collection stands as a living memory of critical visual culture in Cameroon, revealing the tensions, resistances, and symbolic strategies deployed against power. Le Popoli and its central character, Poupoul, represent two complementary devices for understanding the complex dialogue between graphic satire and social critique: the first organizes the satimedia¹ space, structuring collective irony; the second embodies figures of power and exposes their flaws through graphic humor.
This article therefore proposes an iconographic, sociological, and political approach to Le Popoli and Poupoul, considered as two sides of the same coin within the Cameroonian satirical dispositif. Based on the Artopia collection, we will demonstrate that Le Popoli actively contributes to the development of a critical graphic memory, which can enrich not only artistic education but also emerging fields of research in the humanities, digital innovation, and cultural heritage preservation.
Creation Context: Between Political Liberalization and Social Decay
The birth of the character Poupoul in the 1990s cannot be separated from the political context in Cameroon. The end of the single-party system came with law no. 90-52 of December 19, 1990, on freedom of social communication, which established freedom of expression and opened a new era for the media. This period also coincided with the emergence of multiparty politics, but also with a series of economic crises that the structural adjustment programs imposed by the IMF and the World Bank struggled to alleviate. Far from restoring the national economy, these policies contributed to the disintegration of the social fabric and the widespread development of clientelist, corrupt, and nepotistic governance practices.
Between 1997 and 2006, corruption reached alarming proportions. On January 10, 2006, in a statement published in the journal Mutations, the United States Ambassador to Cameroon stated that “acts of corruption have become so common and so banal that some observers wonder whether the meaning of the word corruption has a different connotation in Cameroon.” He then sent a list of 58 high-ranking corrupt officials to President Paul Biya. It was in this climate of moral and institutional decay that Le Popoli, a satirical newspaper founded in 1993 by Nyemb Popoli and Alain Christian Eyoum Ngangué within the daily newspaper Le Messager, emerged. A true space for social critique, Le Popoli quickly became an emblematic media outlet of resistance through humor, combining political protest, social satire, and denunciation of the excesses of power.
Le Popoli: the satimédia¹ of freedom of expression
Designed as a caricatural comic strip in press format, Le Popoli quickly established itself in the media landscape through its sharp humor and uncompromising denunciation of the political class. Its main subjects deal with allegories of the Cameroonian executive, ready to do anything to stay in power at the expense of the impoverished governed and a democratic political transition. Printed in over 8,000 copies, this satimédia¹ — a contraction of satire and media — provoked the ire of those in power, resulting in numerous censorships and even the imprisonment of Alain Christian in 1997. Expelled from Le Messager, Le Popoli nevertheless continued independently, settling in Douala in 2013 under the direction of Dovan A. Bogning.
However, Le Popoli’s editorial line has always followed the rules of political and satirical caricature², namely the conscious or unconscious denunciation of the excesses of the ruling sphere. This caricature approach is always driven by a strong moral, ethical, or deontological intention, fortunately balanced by its sarcastic, burlesque, disdainful, entertaining, and mocking character. Yet caution is necessary, as the distortion of the features of a known or legendary character is an excellent device to facilitate identification rather than caricature itself. Moreover, caricatures draw their sources from collective imagery and imagination, which they also influence in turn. Maintaining a certain distance from these is all the more important since, according to Francis Nyamnjoh³, satirical press has the particularity of fostering diverse and multiple interpretations that often stem from rumors. This cleverness is also used to create Poupoul, the main character in Le Popoli. With his slogan "Rira bien qui rira le dernier" (“He who laughs last, laughs best”), the author mainly criticizes and caricatures the poor governance of the President of the Republic, Mr. Biya. Regarding what Poupoul represents, Achille Mbembe thinks that the image of caricature is a signifier that highlights a signified, thus expressing the mindset and imagination of the caricaturist. Through this observation, Mbembe states: “the nature of the image is to ‘be like,’ that is, to annex what it represents, to mimic it while masking, in the very act of representation, the power of its own arbitrariness, its own power of opacity, simulacrum, and alteration.”⁴
Beyond the image, the structural and conceptual organization of Le Popoli’s sections reflects a desire to build a striking and impactful universe. It is a universe reminding us that we are not only reading a politico-economic satire but also discovering the daily lives of Cameroonians and important moments in the country’s history at a given time. To observe this, let us browse some of the main sections of the 1998 Messager Popoli.
Through its drawings, stories, and visual codes, Le Popoli constructs a universe where social denunciation, political critique, and memorial construction mingle. This approach also relies on caricature’s ability to borrow from popular imagery to better invert its codes and highlight their contradictions.
Section: L’œil écoute (The Eye Listens)
In this section, the focus is generally on history related to what is happening in society at large.
Source: Le Messager Popoli No. 243, Tuesday, January 6, 1998, p. 4, drawing by R. Sewado, Artopia Collection
Section: Globe Croqueur
This section mostly covers international news.
Source: Le Messager Popoli No. 243, Tuesday, January 6, 1998, p. 11, Étoile…, Artopia Collection
Section: Porotique
Echoing its name, this section generally tells us about the adventures of the main character, Poupoul.
Source: Le Messager Popoli No. 244, Thursday, January 8, 1998, p. 4, script and illustration by Pacho, Artopia Collection
Section : Envoyé spécial (Special Correspondent)
This section deals with events that most of the time require an on-site visit or field investigation.
Source: Le Messager Popoli No. 244, Thursday, January 8, 1998, p. 6, drawing by S. Mbumbo, Artopia Collection
Section: Sang pour sang (Blood for blood)
This section mainly deals with serious crimes involving loss of human lives.
Source: Le Messager Popoli No. 244, Thursday, January 8, 1998, p. 8, story by C. Afana and illustration by R. Sewado, Artopia Collection
Section: Vachement lait
This section deals with miscellaneous news and the decline of social morals.
Source: Le Messager Popoli No. 244, Thursday, January 8, 1998, p. 9, story by C. Ngoa Mballa and drawing by R. Sewado, Artopia Collection
Section : Méli-mélo
This section mainly deals with poor governance shared among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches.
Source: Le Messager Popoli No. 245, Tuesday, January 13, 1998, p. 2, by Nyemb Popoli, Artopia Collection
Section : Footoir
This section mainly deals with the abuses and issues within Cameroonian football.
Source: Le Messager Popoli No. 247, Thursday, January 22, 1998, p. 5, by Nyemb Popoli, Artopia Collection
Section : Feuilleton
This section is dedicated to a figure or personality. In the case of the 1998 series, it was devoted throughout the year to Nelson Mandela.
Source: Le Messager Popoli No. 247, Thursday, January 22, 1998, p. 11, by Nyemb Popoli, Artopia Collection
Section: Détente (Relaxation)
This section is dedicated to games, horoscopes, and advertisements. It mentions that the film Titanic is scheduled to be shown at the former Abbia theater cinema on Friday, May 8, and Sunday, May 10. The film Amistad is scheduled for Saturday, May 9. This helps open the satimedia to a wider audience.
Source: Le Messager Popoli No. 274, Thursday, May 7, 1998, p. 10, Artopia Collection
Section : M’adam et ève
This section is dedicated to women, fashion, and beauty tips. It clearly shows that Le Popoli targeted all social groups to come and explore its universe.
Source: Le Messager Popoli No. 274, Thursday, May 7, 1998, p. 11, Artopia Collection
Poupoul: The Burlesque Figure of Absolute Power
At the heart of Popoli’s satirical framework stands the figure of Poupoul, transparently inspired by President Paul Biya. Poupoul exaggerates certain physical and behavioral traits of his model: the haughty gaze, the grandiose posture, the mocking smile, the prominent belly — all signs expressing a profound disconnect from popular reality.
The iconographic representation of Poupoul also evokes deeper references to African visual traditions. His design notably recalls the Tukah mask of the secret Kah society of Bamendou (Dolefack, 2022), used in ceremonies linked to fertility and political authority. This parallel is far from incidental: it reinforces the idea that power in Cameroon still carries a totemic, sacralized dimension, immune to any rational contestation.
The bulging forehead, protruding eyes, and headdress adorned with lizards — symbols of rebirth and longevity — convey this mystical dimension of power. His modest suit, luxurious shoes, and neatly knotted tie, on the other hand, reveal the appropriation of modern external signs by a political elite profoundly out of touch with social realities.
Far from being a mere caricature, Poupoul embodies an anthropomorphization of Cameroonian power, merging in his figure the multiple cultural regions of the country: his corpulence evokes the West, his elegance the Littoral, his small stature the East, and his authoritarianism the Far North. This symbolic hybridity intensifies the critical impact of the character, making him a magnifying mirror reflecting the flaws of the Cameroonian political system.
1. Profile view:
Illustration source: Le Messager Popoli No. 317 of Tuesday, October 6, 1998, p.5, Artopia collection.
2. Front view:
Illustration source: Le Messager Popoli No. 293 of Tuesday July 14, 1998, p.2, Artopia collection.
3. Tukah mask, Bamendou:
Excessively swollen cheeks, with an openwork headdress decorated with crocodiles or lizards. Early 19th century at least, wood, 86 cm, cf. Harter, 1986, photo Wp. 35, Harter collection, photo Ciné Photo RZ
Poupoul's technical sheet
In the 1988 series Le Messager Popoli , the main character is still called Poupoul but nowadays he goes by the name Popaul.
Category: Graphic and digital art (caricature)
Author: Nyemb Popoli
Title: Popaul (emblematic character of the satirical newspaper Le Popoli published by Les Chauves-Souris),
Year: 2003 (published in the newspaper Messager) ,
Type: Cartoon comic strip
Genre: Political and satirical caricature,
Technique: Mixed (drawing, digital inking and printing on press paper) in press format
Dimensions: 02 heads and ¾ of Poupoul
Caricature and Artistic Heritage: A Lever for Education, Innovation, and “Made in Cameroon”
The caricature production of the newspaper Le Popoli is today part of an essential dynamic in the patrimonialization of Cameroonian visual culture. As a true space for developing a critical aesthetic, this graphic corpus goes beyond its purely satirical function to constitute a valuable testimony of forms of symbolic resistance in postcolonial Africa.
From this perspective, the conservation approach undertaken by Artopia appears particularly visionary. By gathering, digitizing, and promoting Popoli’s archives, this initiative contributes not only to preserving an alternative visual memory but also to opening new avenues for artistic education, research, and cultural innovation.
Institutional recognition of caricature as a full-fledged artistic discipline thus becomes a fundamental issue. Integrating the study of satimedia into art school curricula would help train a new generation of artists capable of combining graphic virtuosity, critical thinking, and civic awareness. Through the analysis of figures such as Poupoul, students could understand images not merely as entertainment but as complex instruments for social and political dialogue.
Moreover, the creation of organized archives represents a strategic opportunity for the development of emerging technologies, particularly artificial intelligence. The caricature corpora of Popoli offer exceptional material for training algorithms capable not only of recognizing aesthetic forms but also schemes of irony, satire, and socio-political critique. In a digital world still largely dominated by Western cultural references, integrating African productions would enrich artificial intelligence with more pluralistic and intercultural interpretive frameworks.
Thus, Le Popoli, far from being a mere relic of the past, proves to be a strategic vector for the reconfiguration of contemporary heritage, educational, and technological policies. Cameroonian caricature, by combining collective memory and innovation, becomes a driving force for affirming a creative, critical, and internationally recognized “made in Cameroon.”
Popoli and Poupoul: Two sides of the same coin
The complementarity between Popoli and Poupoul constitutes the fundamental key to understanding the satirical universe constructed by Nyemb. On one hand, Le Popoli organizes the collective space of satire by offering a transversal reading of Cameroon’s social, political, and economic realities; on the other hand, Poupoul individually embodies the caricature of power, concentrating within himself the traits of poor governance, opportunism, and elitist disdain.
In this sense, Popoli and Poupoul appear as two sides of the same coin: one works to structure the collective satirical discourse, while the other serves as its emblematic embodiment. The satimédia becomes the public arena where contestation unfolds, while Poupoul is its symbolic avatar, allowing readers to immediately identify the criticized flaws.
This iconographic dialectic enables a multi-layered reading of the satire: Popoli generalizes, constructing a space for the circulation of critique; Poupoul particularizes, giving a face to the denunciation. This device of crossed enunciation amplifies the effectiveness of the satirical message by combining a structural analysis of power mechanisms with their visual embodiment.
Within this dynamic, humor plays a strategic role. It acts as a protective screen against repression, but also as a catalyst for popular criticism. By staging a ridiculous despot and exaggerating his flaws to the point of absurdity, Le Popoli and Poupoul offer readers a cathartic space, a mental escape from accumulated frustrations.
Thus, the strength of Popoli’s satirical project lies precisely in this articulation between media and character: two convergent vectors of the same denunciatory will, two complementary instruments of symbolic resistance in an authoritarian context.
Conclusion
The recognition of caricature as a living artistic heritage today constitutes a major challenge for the cultural future of Cameroon. Through the example of the newspaper Le Popoli and its central character Poupoul, it clearly appears that graphic humor, when conceived with aesthetic rigor and political sharpness, can become a powerful lever for civic education, memorial transmission, and cultural innovation.
Creating archives like those of Artopia, valuing these documentary collections, and integrating caricature into national educational curricula represent strategic avenues to strengthen the dialogue between critical tradition and creation constantly seeking new perspectives. This dynamic also fits into major global issues related to digital cultural diversity, at a time when artificial intelligence increasingly shapes how we perceive, interpret, and transmit images.
Le Popoli and Poupoul, two sides of the same satirical coin, thus embody a living, critical, and emancipatory memory that Cameroon would benefit from fully recognizing and projecting on the international stage. Investing in this visual culture means affirming the importance of a plural African voice, capable of combining local roots and global resonances, critical heritage, and future perspectives.
1. Francis Fogué Kuaté et Christelle Amandine Djoulde, Analyse historique de la presse satirique camerounaise de la période coloniale au début du 20ème siècle, 2013, Ridiculosa, N°19 Bis.
2. Christophe Cassiau-Haurie, L’Histoire de la Bande dessinée au Cameroun, Ed. L’Harmattan, 2016.
3. Francis Nyamnjoh, Africa’s Media and the Politics of Belonging, London, Zed Books, 2005, pp.225-226.
4. Mbembe Achille, La chose et ses doubles dans la caricature camerounaise, in Cahiers d’Etudes Africaines,
vol 36, n°141/142, 1996, p.143.
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- Le Messager Popoli N° 243 du mardi 06 janvier 1998, collection Artopia.
- Le Messager Popoli N° 244 du jeudi 08 janvier 1998, collection Artopia.
- Le Messager Popoli N° 66 du jeudi 15 janvier 1998, collection Artopia.
- Le Messager Popoli N° 247 du jeudi 22 janvier 1998, collection Artopia.
- Le Messager Popoli N° 274 du jeudi 07 mai 1998, collection Artopia.
- Le Messager Popoli N° 293 du mardi 06 octobre 1998, collection Artopia.
- Le Messager Popoli N° 317 du mardi 06 octobre 1998, collection Artopia.